Tuesday, June 29, 2010

TYPE OF FABRIC

TYPE OF FABRIC

Fabrics are manufactured assembly of fibres and/or yarns, which have substantial surface areas in relation to the thickness and sufficient strength to give the assembly inherent cohesion.
     There are three main types of fabrics namely
     (a) woven
     (b) knitted and
     (c) non-woven.

WOVEN FABRIC
Woven fabrics are formed by interlacing two sets of yarns at right angles to each other. The set of yarns which lie in the lengthwise direction is known as warp and the widthwise group of yams is known as weft.
There are three basic weaves in common use for the majority of fabric: plain weave, twill weave and satin weave. For each type of weave, different kinds of fabrics can be formed by varying the yarn count and the density of warp or weft yarn.
1.    Plain weave - each weft yam, in this simplest type of weave, goes alternately under and over each warp. It is used to a considerable extent than any other weaves. With plain weave, the following common fabrics can be formed:




Chiffon
A very lightweight, sheer silk or manufactured filament fabric made in a plain weave with fine, hard spun yam of approximately the same size of warp and weft and the number of ends and picks per inch.
End uses:
Ladies' evening wear, dresses and scarves


113 X 95   70D X 70D

TESTING METHOD

When an article is produced, it has to be suitable for its end-uses - it must conform to a set of specifications that have been laid down for it. Quality in textile products can thus be defined as the extent to which an article conforms to its specifications.

For example, a shirt should not only be attractive and fit, but should also possess quality criteria such as shape retention after washing, resistance to colour fading, or lasting wear. A method to evaluate the textile products relative to these quality aspects is to conduct tests that simulate actual wear conditions. This is done by taking a sample of the material and testing it (for example, by extending or tearing it) using various instruments. Experiments are conducted by research organizations, government standards institutions, consumer organizations, and textile buying offices to evaluate the quality of textile articles, and establish minimum performance requirements.

The following section will consider some of the common tests which are performed on textiles (most of the tests discussed are based on British Standards).
 
Abrasion resistance
The abrasion of a fabric is the rubbing away of its fibres and yams. The ability of a fabric to resist abrasion can be tested in a number of ways. One way is by the ‘flexing and abrasion method’ which can be used for all fabrics except floor coverings. Using a flex abrasion tester, a sample of predetermined dimensions is pulled and rubbed in continuous cycles until it breaks. Its abrasion resistance is determined by the load applied by the tester, and the number of cycles taken to break the sample. Visual inspection of the abrasion is also made. The ‘Martindale Tester’ is also well known. In this apparatus, the sample fabric is rubbed against a standard fabric until it wears through.
[International testing standards: Martindale - BS 5690, JIS L-1096, Accelerator - JIS L-1096 (woven), JIS L-1018 (knit). AATCC 93]
 
 Bursting strength
Some fabrics, especially knitted ones, are stressed in many directions at one time. The bursting strength of a knitted fabric is the ability of the material to resist rupture by pressure. To test the bursting strength of such fabrics, a hydraulic bursting strength tester can be used. A fabric sample is clamped over a thin flexible diaphragm, which expands as the pressure increases. The fabric eventually bursts, and the pressure gauge reading gives a measure of the bursting strength of the fabric.
[International testing standards: ASTM D3786, BS 4768, ISO 2360, JIS L-1096]
 
Colour fastness
An important property of fabric is its colour fastness or ability to keep its original colour. To assess the amount of colour change or staining that takes place in a fabric, ‘grey scales’ are used. The grey scale for assessing colour change rates the results of a test from class 1 (poor, substantial change of colour) to class 5 (excellent, no change in original colour). Similarly, the grey scale for assessing staining rates the results from class 1 (heavy staining) to class 5 (no staining).
There are different types of colour fastness which need to be tested as the colour of a fabric can be affected by a variety of factors.

1 . Colour fastness to washing/dry-cleaning
The apparatus used for this test is known as a launderometer. Specific sizes for fabric swatches are prepare for laundering, one being retained for colour change comparison. The colour change is assessed by using the grey scales under standard lighting conditions. Any staining is measured in the same way.
[International testing standard, AATCC 61, BS 1006, DIN 54014, DIN 54011, ISO 105, JIS L-0844]
 
2. Colour fastness to dry and wet crocking
The crockmeter test determines the degree of colour which is transferred from one surface to another by rubbing. The test reveals the presence of surface dyes that have not been removed properly by rinsing, or a failure of the dye class to give good dye affinity and fixation. The test, which can be done under either wet or dry conditions, involves mounting the fabric sample in a crockmeter, which rubs it in continuous cycles against a standard white test fabric. A fixed pressure is applied for a set number of cycles, and the amount of colour which is stained onto the white test fabric is then assessed by comparing it with the grey scale for assessing staining.
[International testing standards: AATCC 8, BS 1006 X12, ISO 105 X12, JIS L-0849, IWS TM 165, AS 2001.4.3]
 
3. Colourfastness to bleaching
In this test, after the sample is bleached, grey scales are used to evaluate the colour change, and the result is compared with commercially accepted standards.
[International testing standards: Hypochlorite - AATCC 3, ISO 105 NO1, BS 1006 NO1, JIS L0856. Peroxide - AATCC 101, BS 1006 N02, ISO 105 N02]
 
4. Colour fastness to perspiration
In this test, a fabric sample is soaked with a simulated perspiration solution. It is then subjected to mechanical pressure and allowed to dry slowly in certain atmospheric conditions for a period of time (as specified by testing standard). Changes in colour and staining are assessed by the appropriate grey scales.
[International testing standards: AATCC 15, BS 1006 E04, ISO 105 E04, JIS L-0848]
 
5. Colour fastness to light
It is important for fabrics such as curtains and upholstery to have good light fastness properties. In the test, a fabric sample is exposed to daylight under given conditions, including protection from rain, together with eight dyed wool standards. Its colour fastness is assessed by comparing the colour change of the sample with that of the standards. Results range from class I (substantial colour fading) to class 8 (no colour fading).
[International testing standards: BS 1006 B02, JIS L-0843, ISO 105 B02, AATCC 16E] 

Dimensional stability
The dimensional stability test is designed to show how well a fabric keeps its shape after washing, Washing usually results in shrinkage, although some fabrics can expand, or gain, after washing, For this test, the washing time and temperature, drying procedure and restoration technique (such as ironing) are all specified, and options are available. The sample is measured in both the warp and weft directions (or wales and courses for knitted fabrics). The percentage of shrinkage (gain) is calculated and the results compared with commercially accepted standards.
[International testing standards: BS EN 25077, BS 4923, ISO 5077, ISO 6330, AATCC 135, AATCC 150] 

Flammability
It is important to know both whether a fabric will bum or not, and, if it does, how quickly the flame will spread through it. The flammability testing procedure therefore determines both whether a fabric will ignite and the time that it takes to bum. Standardized conditions are applied including the size of the sample, the flame length used, and the timing of the test. The fabric sample is first placed in an oven at about 105° C for 30 minutes, then put in a flammability tester where a flame is applied and the result observed. The fabric is then classified according to whether it burned, and if so, how long the flame took to spread.
[International testing standards: General Clothing Textiles - ASTM D1230, US CPSC CFR 16 Part 1610, Canadian Hazardous Products Act, UK Flammability BS 5438]
 
Seam strength/slippage
The seam slippage of a woven fabric refers to the ability of a seam to withstand forces trying to pull it apart. A strip of fabric is folded and stitched across the width of the seam. A load is then applied to the strip at right angles to the seam using ‘grab-test’ jaws, and the extent to which the seam opens is measured. The seam strength is recorded as the seam breaks under test conditions. The measuring equipment gradually increases the axial load on the sample (the load applied depends on the testing requirements) and the width of the seam opening at its widest place is measured to determine the seam slippage.
[International testing standard: ASTM D1683, ASTM D434, JIS L-1093/ 1096, BS 3320]

Tear strength
This term means the force required expressed in units of weight to tear a fabric. A fabric sample of standard dimensions (according to the testing requirements) has a slit cut into it. The testing apparatus then measures the work done in tearing a fixed distance through the cloth. The ‘Elmendorf’ is a popular tearing tester.
[International testing standards: Elmendorf - ASTM D1424, JIS L-1096 Tongue Tear (single/ double) - ASTM D226 1, JIS L- 1096, Wing-Rip - BS 4303]
 
Tensile strength
This term refers to the breaking load or force, expressed in units of weight, required to break or rupture a specimen. A number of methods can be used to test the tensile strength of a textile sample such as fibre, yarn or cloth. The sample is clamped between two sets of jaws, a force or load is applied to it until it ruptures and the average breaking load is recorded in the 'Strip Test', and the ‘Grab Test’.
[International testing standards: One-inch Grab - ASTM C5034, ISO 5082, JIS L-1096, Strip Test - ASTM D1682, ISO 5081, BS 2576, JIS L- 1096]

TERMS OF PAYMENT DETAIL

Document Against Acceptance (D/A)
The buyer is allowed to make payment for the goods on credit, as agreed between him and the seller. Payment for the merchandise is commonly 60 or 90 days after acceptance of documents. The buyer gains the advantage of not having to pay for the goods for a period of time after accepting the documents. The supplier bears some risk because he will not receive payment until a specified period after the documents and titles to the merchandise have been accepted.

Documents Against Payment (D/P)
The supplier agrees to release any documents referring to the transfer of title for the merchandise upon payment. Since the goods are produced and shipped before the supplier tenders the required documents for payment, there is some risk to the supplier for demurrage charges if the buyer does not accept the documents and title to the goods.

Open Account
This method of payment does not involve the services of a bank, but is based upon an agreement between the supplier and the buyer. The buyer has no legal obligation to pay the supplier and payment is normally made directly to the supplier. The supplier bears some risks as the goods and documents are usually delivered to the buyer before payment is made.

Letter of Credit (L/C)
A letter of credit (also known as documentary credit) is a document issued by a bank on behalf of an applicant (the buyer) undertaking to make payment to a beneficiary (the seller) up to a stated amount of money, within a prescribed time limit and against stipulated documents.
There are usually two banks involved in a letter of credit operation. The issuing bank is the bank of the buyer and issues the credit; the advising bank, usually located in the seller's country, is the bank through which the advising bank sends the credit to the beneficiary.

Types of credit:
There are three common types of credit: revocable, irrevocable, and irrevocable and confirmed
Revocable credit: this type of credit can be amended or cancelled by the applicant without any prior warning or notice to the beneficiary. More risks are involved for the seller (the beneficiary) as he will then have to deal directly with the buyer to obtain payment. However the buyer has more flexibility.
Irrevocable credit: this type of credit can be amended or cancelled only with the agreement of all parties concerned. It also represents a definite undertaking by the issuing bank to pay provided that the stipulated documents are presented and that the terms and conditions of the credit are complied with.
Irrevocable and confirmed credit: this type of credit involves the undertaking of the advising bank in addition to that of the issuing bank; it means that the issuing bank requests a second bank to add its own confirmation to the credit so that the confirming bank is responsible to make payment if the issuing bank fails to pay the beneficiary.
A letter of credit should usually stipulate a requirement for the following documents:

*  Bill of lading
*  copy of the certificate of origin
*  commercial invoice
*  export licence
*  packing list

Commercial Invoice
A commercial invoice is a business document which records the sale of goods or services between two parties, and by which the seller informs the buyer of the amount to be paid for the goods. Usually, the original and four copies are stipulated in the L/C.
 
A commercial invoice normally includes the following information:

*  Date and authorized signature
*  The correct name and address of both buyer and seller (or the name of the consignee if the goods are not consigned to buyer)
*  A detailed description of the merchandise purchased strictly corresponding with the description given in the letter of credit, along with quantity, unit price, and total price, all deductions and additional charges included in the price
*  Weight of the goods, number of packages, any identifying shipping marks, any import license number, contract number or any other details requested and stipulated in the L/C
*   Terms of delivery and payment (FOB, CIF, C&F)
*   The name of the issuing bank and the letter of credit number
*  The port of entry for which the merchandise is destined
*  The type of currency and rate of exchange

TERMS OF TRADE DETAIL

C&F (cost and freight)
The seller/supplier agrees to contract the freight and pay "cost and freight" for loading the goods, cleared for export, on board a vessel and the charges to ship the goods to destination. The buyer bears the risk of the goods from the time they pass the ship's rail at the port of shipment and pay for the insurance coverage, and for the unloading costs at the port of destination.
  
CIF (cost, insurance, freight)
The seller's price includes all charges, freight and insurance up to the point where the ship carrying the goods arrives at the port of destination; the goods must be cleared for export by the seller. From that point the buyer has to bear all charges and risks, including unloading costs.

CM
This refers to the manufacturing cost and this term means "cut and make". The buyer supplies all the materials to the manufacturer.

CMQ
This term means "cut, make and quota" and is similar to 'CM' except that the manufacturer has to supply the quota as well.

CMT
The term means "cut, make and trim". The buyer provides the fabric, and the supplier makes the garments.

CMTQ
The term means "cut, make, trim and quota". The buyer has to provide the fabric and the manufacturer makes the garments as well as provides the quota.

Ex-Ship
The supplier is responsible for all costs incurred until the ship reaches the port of destination where the supplier delivers the documents and the buyer can clear the goods on board the ship. The buyer bears all risks and costs from that point including unloading charges.

EXW (ex- works) / Ex-Factory
The supplier delivers the goods to the buyer at his premises, i.e., factory, warehouse, etc. He has the minimum responsibility and does not have to provide minimum documentation unless upon specific request. The buyer bears all costs and risks involved upon delivery of the goods until the desired destination.

FOB
This term means "Free On Board". The supplier is responsible for all charges (including export licences, export taxes, etc.) and risks until the goods have passed over the ship's rail at the port of shipment; the merchandise must be cleared for export. The buyer contracts and pays for the freight and bears all risks for loss or damage to the goods as soon as the merchandise passes the ship's rail. The buyer also pays for all import duties and clears the goods through customs at the point of destination.

FOB Airport (FOA)
This is similar to the term FOB except that the mode of transportation is an air carrier. The supplier fulfills his obligations after he has delivered the goods to the air carrier. The goods must be cleared for export by the supplier.

Landed Duty Paid (LDP)/ Delivered Duty Paid (DDP)
The seller fulfills his obligation to deliver when the goods have been made available at the named place in the country of importation. The seller bears the risks and costs, including duties, taxes and other charges of delivering the goods thereto, cleared for importation. Under these terms, the seller bears the maximum responsibility, and in this case, the seller has to clear the goods both for export and import.

Certificate of Origin
A certificate of Hong Kong origin (CO), is issued when it has been established that the goods are the natural produce of Hong Kong or the product of a manufacturing process in Hong Kong which has changed permanently and substantially the shape, nature, form or utility of the basic materials used in manufacture. There are specific origin criteria applicable to individual types of products manufactured in Hong Kong. There are six organizations in Hong Kong authorized to issue the certificate, namely the Trade Department, the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce, the Indian Chamber of Commerce of Hong Kong, the Federation of Hong Kong Industries, the Chinese Manufacturers' Association of Hong Kong, the Chinese General Chamber of Commerce.

Export Licence
In Hong Kong, export licences are needed for all garments and textile products. The licences are issued by the Trade Department.

Packing List
This is a document that indicates the contents of each individual carton/ package in the container. The packing list includes the cubic measurement of the cartons/package, the weight, the number of cartons/packages, the breakdown of the goods by size/colour/quantity. This document is prepared by the seller or the shipowner, and the buyer can specify which information should be included.

SHIPPING TERMS

Consignee
The person whose name appears on the bill of lading or airway bill as the party to whom the goods are to be delivered by the carrier.

FCL (full container load)
A fully loaded container which may be in weight or cubic measurement terms, contracted by one shipper, and conveyed to one consignee and to one destination.

LCL (less container load)
A consignment of cargo which does not fill a full container, grouped with other consignments for the same destination.

Shipper
This is the person whose name appears on the bill of lading or airway bill as the party who has contracted the carrier to dispatch the goods.

Shipping Marks
These are marks essential to identifying cargo and linking that cargo with specific documents. Because these marks are important as identifiers, the marks and numbers should be as simple as possible. Shipping marks include the abbreviated name of buyer, reference number, destination, package number, and container number (if applicable).

Garment on Hangers (GOH)
The garments are packed into the container on hangers.

Flat Packed
The goods are packed into cartons.

TRANSPORT TERMS

Bill Of Lading (BIL)

It is a major document if the goods are dispatched by sea.
The document represents:
1.      A formal receipt for the goods
2.      The evidence of the contract of carriage of the goods between the shipper of the goods and the shipping company
3.      The document of title to the goods

A bill of lading may include the following details:
 a description of the goods in general terms not inconsistent with that in the letter of credit

* identifying marks and numbers, if any
* the name of the carrying vessel
* evidence that the goods have been loaded on board
* the ports of shipment and discharge
*the names of shipper, consignee (if not made out "to order"), and name and address of the "notifies" party if any
* whether freight has been paid in advance or is payable at destination
* the number of original bills of lading issued
* the date of issue
* the departure date of carrying vessel or aircraft
 
Combined Transport Bill of Lading
 
A bill of lading covering carriage by a combination of transport movements where the carrier issuing the bill undertakes responsibility for the goods from a point or place of receipt to a point or place named in the bill of lading. This document is also commonly called a "container bill of lading" as it is issued by container companies and their agents.

Groupage Bill of Lading / House Bill of Lading
When the order amount is insufficient to fill a container, the supplier might request that the forwarder combine several orders that are going to the same port of destination into one container to save freight charges for all the parties concerned. The forwarder does this and delivers the container to the shipping lines, which treats the container as one shipment and issues one set of bill of lading to the order of the forwarder, who in turn issues "groupage bill of lading" or "house bill of lading" to each of the suppliers. These documents merely serve as a delivery order notice or shipping certificate to direct forwarding agents at the port of destination to deliver the goods to the holders of the house bills of lading.
 
Negotiable Bill of Lading
The bill of lading is consigned to "the order" of the shipper, and blank endorsed on the back to the order of the bank which issues the letter of credit for the buyer.
 
Non -Negotiable Bill of Lading
The document is consigned to a specific party and delivery by the carrier is to the consignee only. The consignee must produce an original bill of lading in order to take delivery of the goods.

 On Board Bill of Lading
The document confirms that the goods have been loaded on board for shipment, validated by the shipper confirming the name of the vessel and the date of boarding. This document is always requested by the bank unless otherwise stipulated in the letter of credit.
 
Stale Bill of Lading
The bill of lading is tendered to the negotiating bank at so late a date after sailing that the negotiating bank could not negotiate the documentary letter of credit before arrival of the goods at the port of destination.

Third Party Bill of Lading
This is a bill of lading that does not show the shipper as the beneficiary of the shipment but rather that the goods are consigned to a third party. Unless expressly prohibited in the terms of the letter of credit, this type of bill of lading is commonly accepted for negotiation by the banks.
 
Through Bill of Lading
This is an ordinary bill of lading with the exception that it indicates that the cargo will be unload at a port of discharge and then carried to a final destination by another sea carrier. The through bill of lading can also be used for transfers, transshipments, relays, or more than one mode of transport, similar to a combined transport bill of lading.
 
Unclean Bill of Lading
A bill of lading that bears a superimposed clause or statement expressing reservations about the condition of the goods or packing. If such remarks are shown on a bill of lading, the document will be treated as "unclean" or "claused " and considered a discrepancy by the banks.
 
House Airway bill
A master airway bill covers the whole shipment; a house airway bill is a receipt issued by a forwarder to each separate customer for his shipment in a single airway bill.

Master Airway bill
A receipt or air consignment note issued by an airline or their authorized agents evidencing the dispatch of merchandise by air freight. Usually three originals are made: one for the consignee, one for the shipper/supplier, and one retained by the issuing carrier.

Saturday, June 26, 2010

TERMS OF PAYMENT :

Document Against Acceptance (D/A), Documents Against Payment (D/P), Open Account, Letter of Credit (L/C), Commercial Invoice

Friday, June 25, 2010

TERMS OF TRADE :

C&F (cost and freight), CIF (cost, insurance, freight), CM, CMQ, CMT, CMTQ, Ex-Ship, EXW (ex- works) / Ex-Factory, FOB, FOB Airport (FOA), Landed Duty Paid (LDP)/ Delivered Duty Paid (DDP), Certificate of Origin, Export License, Packing List.